Education
Education is the conveyance of skills, knowledge, and character values and takes several forms. Formal education takes place in a prescribed institutional setting in the form of public schools on a curriculum basis. Non-formal education follows a prescribed route but outside the school system, while informal education involves unstructured learning through experiences. Formal and non-formal education are classified into levels, such as early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, and tertiary education. Others classify according to teaching methods, such as teacher-centered and student-centered education, and according to subjects, such as science education, language education, and physical education. "Education" may also refer to the mental states and attributes of educated people and the academic field of study for educational phenomena.
The exact definition of education is controversial, and there are controversies over the purposes of education and how much education is different from indoctrination by promoting critical thinking. These controversies affect how to define, measure, and improve different types of education. In essence, education socializes children into society by teaching them cultural norms and values, educating them with the skills they need to become productive members of society. By doing this, it boosts economic development and awareness of domestic and international issues. Formal institutions are important in education. Governments, for example, set policies for education to decide when and where school classes take place, what is taught, and who must attend. International bodies like UNESCO have contributed to universal primary education for children.
Education success is determined by a number of factors. Among them are psychological factors, including motivation, intelligence, and personality. Social factors like socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and gender are usually accompanied by discrimination. There are also other factors, such as access to educational technology, quality of teachers, and parents.
The main scholarly discipline studying education is referred to as education studies. It investigates the nature of education, its goals, effects, and ways of improvement. Education studies has different subdisciplines, such as philosophy, psychology, sociology, and economics of education. It also discusses comparative education, pedagogy, and the history of education.
During prehistory, education was mostly informal through oral transmission and imitation. With the rise of ancient civilizations, the discovery of writing brought with it an extension of knowledge and a shift from informal to formal education. Early formal education was mostly available for elites and religious communities. With the invention of the printing press in the 15th century, books were made widely accessible, thereby making general literacy a reality. During the 18th and 19th centuries, public education became more important, leading to the worldwide trend of making primary education available to all, for free, and compulsory until a certain age. Currently, more than 90% of the world's primary-school-age children are enrolled in primary school.
Definitions
The word "education" comes from the Latin terms educare, which means "to bring up," and educere, which means "to lead forth."[1] The concept of education has been examined by theorists in numerous disciplines.[2] Most are in agreement that education is a deliberate action whose purpose is to attain goals such as the passing on of knowledge, abilities, and values.[3] Extensive argumentation exists regarding its exact nature apart from these general characteristics. One theory looks at education as a process that takes place in events like schooling, teaching, and learning.[4] Another looks at education not as a process but as the mental states and dispositions of educated persons brought about by this process.[5] Additionally, the term can also denote the field of study that investigates the methods, processes, and social institutions associated with teaching and learning.[6] A proper definition of the term is very important when trying to determine educational phenomena, measure educational achievement, and enhance educational practice.[7].
Certain theorists offer exact definitions through the identification of certain characteristics that are unique to all types of education. Education theorist R. S. Peters, for example, sets out three necessary characteristics of education, such as transferring knowledge and understanding to the learner, making the process worthwhile, and doing it in a morally right way.[8] Such specific definitions tend to describe the most common types of education well, but they are criticized because less common types of education sometimes fall outside their scope.[9] Handling counterexamples not addressed by specific definitions can be difficult, which is why some theorists prefer providing less precise definitions in terms of family resemblance instead. This perspective posits that all kinds of education are alike but need not have a set of characteristic features common to all.[10] There are some education theorists, like Keira Sewell and Stephen Newman, who state that the concept of "education" is relative.
Evaluative or thick understandings[b] of education hold that it is in the very nature of education to bring about some kind of amelioration. They are to be distinguished from thin understandings, which provide a value-free account.[13] Certain theorists offer a descriptive understanding of education by simply noting how the word is used in everyday language. Prescriptive conceptions, in contrast, determine what good education is or how education ought to be done.[14] Thick and prescriptive conceptions commonly regard education as an activity that aims to reach certain goals,[15] which could include learning, learning to reason, and developing virtues like kindness and honesty.[16]}
Different authors underscore the necessity of critical thinking in separating education from indoctrination.[17] They contend that indoctrination is concerned only with the transmission of beliefs among students, whether rational or not;[18] while education similarly promotes the rational capacity for critical analysis and interrogation of such beliefs.[19] Nonetheless, it is not always possible to separate these two phenomena unambiguously, because some kinds of indoctrination may be inevitable at the initial phase of education while the child's mind is still in the process of development. This is especially true in situations where young children have to learn about some things without fully understanding the reasons, like specific rules of safety and hygiene procedures.
Education can be described from both teacher and student points of view. Teacher-centered definitions focus on the teacher's point of view and his/her role of passing on knowledge and skills in a morally correct way.[21] Student-centered definitions examine education from the student's participation in the learning process, implying that such a process enriches and changes their future experiences.[22] It is also possible to discuss definitions that combine both views. In this approach, education is seen as a process of shared experience, involving the discovery of a common world and the collaborative solving of problems.
Types
Role in society
Education plays several different roles within society, crossing over social, economic, and personal spheres. On a social basis, education maintains and secures a peaceful society by transmitting core skills needed in interacting with the environment as well as the attainment of personal desires and ambitions. In the current society, the skills include talking, reading, writing, numeracy, and information and communication technology competency. In addition, education enables socialization by imparting consciousness of prevalent social and cultural norms, modeling proper behavior in various settings. Education promotes social cohesion, stability, and peace, encouraging active participation in everyday activities. Though socialization continues throughout life, early childhood education is especially important. Furthermore, education is also crucial in democracies by enabling civic engagement through voting and organizing, as well as encouraging equal opportunities for everybody.
On a financial level, humans become productive citizens of society through education, gaining the technical and analytical abilities required for their careers, as well as for the production of goods and offering services to others. Specialization was limited in early society, where children often learned a wide range of skills needed to keep community functioning. Contemporary societies are more complex, however, and numerous professions require specialized training in addition to general education. As a result, comparatively few individuals become masters of some professions. Moreover, skills and inclinations learned for living in society might occasionally contradict each other, with their worth depending on the situation. For example, cultivating curiosity and questioning given teachings enhances critical thinking and creativity, whereas sometimes obedience to authority is required to preserve social order.
Higher levels of education in the US are related to higher median household wealth.[76].
By enabling people's integration into society, education enhances economic development and reduces poverty. It allows workers to improve their skills, thus enhancing the quality of products and services offered, which eventually leads to prosperity and increased competitiveness.Public education is generally seen as a long-run investment that will benefit society in general, with primary education having especially high rates of return.Further, apart from supporting economic prosperity, education supports technological and scientific progress, lessens unemployment, and encourages social equality.Further, higher education is linked with lower birth rates, partly because of increased awareness of family planning, greater opportunities for women, and postponed marriage.
Education is key in preparing a nation to evolve according to changing demands and tackle challenges head-on. It makes people more aware and helps to solve some of the issues of the day, such as climate change, sustainability, and growing inequalities between rich and poor.[81] By giving students an awareness of how their lives and actions affect other people, education can encourage people to work toward creating a more sustainable and fairer world.[82] Hence, education does not only help keep social norms in place but also stimulates social development.[83] This is even extended to changing economic conditions, where technological change, in particular higher automation, creates new challenges for the workforce that education can address.[84] As conditions change, skills and knowledge imparted may become obsolete, requiring changes to the curriculum to incorporate items such as digital literacy, and encourage expertise in managing new technologies.[85] Furthermore, education can find novel expression in the form of massive open online courses in order to equip people for new challenges and opportunities.
On a more individual level, education fosters personal development, encompassing learning new skills, honing talents, nurturing creativity, enhancing self-knowledge, and refining problem-solving and decision-making abilities.[87] Moreover, education contributes positively to health and well-being. Educated people tend to be better aware of health problems and change their behavior in response, have more robust social support networks and coping mechanisms, and have higher incomes, which provide them with access to better healthcare services.[88] The social value of education is further highlighted by the United Nations' annual International Day of Education on January 24, which declared 1970 as the International Education Year.
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Role of institutions
Organized institutions have a central position in various aspects of education. Organizations like schools, universities, teacher training institutions, and ministries of education make up the education sector. They do not only communicate with each other but also with other stakeholders like parents, local communities, religious groups, non-governmental organizations, healthcare professionals, law enforcement agencies, media platforms, and political leaders. Many people are directly involved in the education industry, including students, teachers, school administrators, and school nurses and curriculum designers.
The policies of government institutions regulate many aspects of formal education. These policies set the age at which children must go to school and when classes must be held, as well as matters relating to the school environment, like infrastructure. Regulations also address the specific qualifications and requirements that the teachers must meet. A crucial part of education policy has to do with the curriculum employed in teaching at schools, colleges, and universities. A curriculum refers to a plan of instruction or a program of learning which leads students to attain their educational objectives. The subject matter is typically chosen on the basis of its significance and is contingent on the nature of the school. The objectives of curriculum in public schools are typically to provide a holistic and balanced education, whereas the vocational training will concentrate more on specialized practical applications within a chosen area. Curricula also detail other aspects outside the subject that will be lectured on, such as how to teach the subject, goals to be accomplished, and parameters for measuring achievement. By deciding the curricula, governmental institutions have a significant influence on what knowledge and skills are imparted to the students.[91] Examples of governmental institutions are the Ministry of Education in India,[92] the Department of Basic Education in South Africa,[93] and the Secretariat of Public Education in Mexico.[94]
Photograph of the headquarters of UNESCO
International organizations, such as UNESCO, have wielded significant influence in shaping educational standards and policies worldwide.
International agencies also have an important role to play in education. For instance, UNESCO is an intergovernmental body whose mission is to defend education in diverse ways. One of its actions is to campaign for education policies, including the treaty Convention on the Rights of the Child, which proclaims education to be an inherent human right for every child and youth. The Education for All program sought to give basic education to all children, adolescents, and adults by 2015, subsequently replaced by the Sustainable Development Goals program, specifically goal 4.[95] Associated policies are the Convention against Discrimination in Education and the Futures of Education program.
There are also influential organizations that are not intergovernmental but are non-governmental. For example, the International Association of Universities encourages cooperation and information exchange between universities and colleges across the globe, whereas the International Baccalaureate provides global diploma programs.[97] Organizations such as the Erasmus Programme enable students to exchange between nations,[98] whereas programs such as the Fulbright Program do the same for teachers.
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Factors of educational success
Educational success, also referred to as student and academic achievement, pertains to the extent to which educational objectives are met, such as the acquisition of knowledge and skills by students. For practical purposes, it is often primarily measured in terms of official exam scores, but numerous additional indicators exist, including attendance
rates, graduation
rates, dropout
rates, student attitudes, and post-school indicators such as later income
and incarceration
rates.[100] Several factors influence educational achievement, such as psychological
factors related to the individual student, and sociological
factors associated with the student's social environment. Additional factors encompass access to educational technology
, teacher quality, and parental involvement. Many of these factors overlap and mutually influence each other.
Psychological
At the psychological level, intrinsic factors are motivation, intelligence, and personality.[102] Motivation is an inner drive that encourages individuals to pursue learning.[103] Motivated learners are likely to demonstrate interaction with the material to be learned by being involved in classroom activities such as discussions, leading to better comprehension of the topic. Motivation also aids in overcoming obstacles and setbacks for students. A key difference between intrinsically and extrinsically motivated students exists. Intrinsically motivated students are motivated by the interest in the subject and the learning process itself. Extrinsically motivated students look for outside rewards like good grades and approval from peers. Intrinsic motivation is more helpful, and it results in greater creativity, interest, and long-term involvement.[104] Educational psychologists seek to find ways to enhance motivation, for example, by fostering healthy competition among students while keeping a balance of positive and negative feedback through praise and constructive criticism.
Intelligence has a great impact on how people react to education. It is a mental characteristic linked to the ability to learn from experience, understand, and use knowledge and skills to resolve problems. People with higher scores in intelligence measures generally do better academically and seek higher education.[106] Intelligence is usually closely linked with the term IQ, a standardized numerical score measuring intelligence on the basis of mathematical-logical and verbal skills. However, it has been said that there are many types of intelligence other than IQ. Psychologist Howard Gardner proposed different kinds of intelligence in areas like mathematics, logic, spatial intelligence, language, and music. Other kinds of intelligence have an impact on intrapersonal and interpersonal interactions. These intelligences are relatively independent of each other, which means a person could be good at one type but less good at another.
The method of choice for gaining knowledge and skills is yet another variable, as argued by learning style proponents. They believe that students with an auditory learning style can easily understand lectures and discussions delivered verbally, while visual learners learn best from information given visually, for example, in diagrams and videos. To promote effective learning, it is beneficial to include a broad range of learning modes.[108] Learning styles have been faulted on unclear empirical evidence of student advantage and inconsistency of student learning style measurement by instructors.[109].
The personality of the learner can also affect educational attainment. For example, traits like conscientiousness and openness to experience, which are found in the Big Five personality traits, are linked to academic success.[110] Other psychological factors are self-efficacy, self-esteem, and metacognitive skills.
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Sociological
Sociological determinants focus not on the psychological characteristics of students but on their environment and social status. They include socioeconomic status, ethnicity, cultural background, and gender, which attract considerable attention from researchers because they are linked to inequality and discrimination. Therefore, they are central to policy-making initiatives that seek to counteract their effects.
Socioeconomic status is influenced by factors beyond just income, including financial security, social status, social class, and various attributes related to quality of life. Low socioeconomic status impacts educational success in several ways. It correlates with slower cognitive development in language and memory, as well as higher dropout rates. Families with limited financial means may struggle to meet their children's basic nutritional needs, hindering their development. Moreover, they might not have resources to invest in learning materials like stimulating toys, books, and computers. Economic constraints could also hinder admission to high-class schools, with the result being admission to schools in economically poor regions. Such schools tend to experience teacher shortages and poor learning materials and facilities like libraries, which translate to poor teaching standards. Additionally, parents cannot afford private tutoring for lagging children. In other instances, economically disadvantaged students are forced to leave school to earn income for their families. Limited access to information on higher education and difficulties in acquiring and paying back student loans contribute to the situation. Low socioeconomic status is also linked with worse physical and mental health, perpetuating a cycle of social inequality that is passed down through generations.
Ethnic origin is linked with cultural differences and language barriers, which may prove to be difficulties for students in adjusting to the school setting and in understanding classes. Additionally, explicit and implicit prejudice and discrimination against ethnic minorities exacerbate these challenges. These prejudices can affect the self-esteem, motivation, and access to educational resources of students. For example, teachers can have stereotypical views, though not necessarily openly racist, with the consequence of differential grading of similar performances depending on a child's ethnicity.
Globally, historically, gender has been central in education because of the way gender roles were differentiated in society. Education has normally privileged men who were supposed to earn a livelihood for the family, whereas women were supposed to take care of homes and raise children, relegating them to limited access to education. In spite of all these inequalities reducing in most contemporary societies, the differences based on gender continue in education. It incorporates gender role and stereotypes in learning fields across education, particularly for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) domains that are portrayed as male and not female-dominated. Such attitudes discourage women students from taking these subjects.[115] In some cases, gender and social discrimination takes the form of explicit official policies within education, such as the stringent limitations on the education of women by the Taliban in Afghanistan,and the segregation of migrant and native students in schools in urban China under the hukou regime.
One aspect of a number of social factors is defined by the expectations associated with stereotypes. These expectations work externally, driven by the way people react to individuals in particular groups, and internally, driven by the way people internalize and become accustomed to them. In this sense, these expectations may be self-fulfilling by influencing the educational results they anticipate. These outcomes might be driven by positive and negative stereotypes.
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Technology and others
Technology is very important in academic achievement. While educational technology has become synonymous with up-to-date digital equipment like computers, it is much broader than that. Educational technology includes an eclectic collection of resources and instructional tools like older-style aids like books and worksheets, as well as digital equipment.
Picture of a cluster of children being introduced to a laptop
Children in Haiti are introduced to a One Laptop per Child computer
Educational technology can be used to improve learning in several different ways. As media, it usually is the sole source of information within a classroom, free for teachers to spend their time and energy elsewhere, like on lesson planning, guiding students, and performance assessment.[120] Through the display of information by means of graphics, sound, and video as opposed to only text, educational technology can improve understanding. Interactive features, including educational games, continue to involve students in the learning process. In addition, technology makes educational materials accessible to large numbers of people, especially via online resources, and encourages student collaboration and communication with instructors.[121] The use of artificial intelligence in education has the potential to offer students new learning experiences and assist instructors in their work. But it also presents new dangers regarding data privacy, disinformation, and manipulation.[122] Other organizations promote students' access to educational technologies, such as projects like the One Laptop per Child initiative, the African Library Project, and Pratham.
Infrastructure of schools is also important in education success. It includes physical ones like the school's location, size, and facilities and equipment available. A safe and healthy environment, neat classrooms, suitable classroom furniture, and availability of a library and a canteen all work towards creating education success.[124] The quality of teachers also plays an important role in determining student achievement. Effective teachers have the capacity to inspire and encourage students, and adapt instructions according to individual capacities and requirements. Their ability relies on their own training, education, and teaching background.[125] A meta-analysis by Engin Karadağ et al. finds that, in comparison with other factors, school- and teacher-related factors have the most influence on academic achievement.
Parental involvement also improves achievement and can raise children's motivation and commitment if they understand their parents are committed to their schooling. This frequently leads to increased self-esteem, better attendance, and improved behavior in school. Parent involvement includes communication with teachers and other school personnel to make teachers aware of issues at hand and seek possible solutions.[127] Other contributing factors, sometimes mentioned in the literature on education, include historical, political, demographic, religious, and legal ones.
Education studies
The main domain investigating education goes by the name of education studies, or simply education sciences. It aims at comprehending the transmission and learning of knowledge by studying different mechanisms and modes of education. This field explores the aims, effects, and meanings of education and the cultural, social, state, and historical contexts that condition it.[130] Education theorists borrow from an array of fields, such as philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics, history, politics, and international relations. Therefore, it is argued that education studies has no distinct methodological and subject demarcations such as those of the science of physics or history.[131] Education studies emphasizes scholarly examination and critical thinking and is distinct in this regard from teacher training courses, which demonstrate to the participants how to be effective teachers. In addition, it addresses not only schooling but examines all types and aspects of educational processes.
Different research approaches are used to examine educational phenomena, which are commonly divided into quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods approaches. Quantitative research emulates the methods of the natural sciences, using exact numerical measurements to gather data from multiple observations and statistical tools for analysis. Its aim is to achieve an objective and unbiased understanding. On the other hand, qualitative research is usually conducted with a smaller sample and attempts to acquire a rich understanding of subjective and personal aspects, like people's experiences in the learning process. Mixed-methods research tries to combine data collected from both methods to obtain a balanced and holistic understanding. Methods of data collection are diverse and can encompass direct observation, test scores, interviews, and questionnaires.[133] Research studies can explore basic factors that affect all types of education or examine particular applications, look for solutions to specific problems, or assess the impact of educational programs and policies
Subfields
Education studies subsumes pedagogy, educational research, comparative education, and the history, sociology, psychology, philosophy, and economics of education.[135] Philosophy of education is the field of applied philosophy which investigates many of the basic assumptions that underlie the theory and practice of education. It examines education both as a discipline and a process and attempts to offer exact definitions of its nature and differences with other phenomena. In addition, it explores the role of education, its forms, and the notion of teachers, students, and their interaction.[136] In addition, it includes educational ethics, which explores the ethical aspects of education, e.g., the ethical norms that govern it and how the teachers should implement them in certain circumstances. The philosophy of education has a rich history and was discussed in ancient Greek philosophy.
The word "pedagogy" is sometimes synonymously used with education studies, but in a narrower context, it describes the subfield dealing with teaching methodology.[138] It examines how educational goals, e.g., knowledge transfer or skill and character formation, can be attained.[139] Pedagogy deals with the methods and strategies used in teaching in traditional school settings. Although some definitions limit it to this context, more broadly, it includes all types of education, including instructional techniques outside of school settings.[140] In a more general sense, it investigates how teachers can make learning experiences for students more effective in improving their comprehension of the subject and how learning happens.
The psychology of education explores the cognitive processes involved in learning, with a focus on how people learn new things and develop as individuals. It examines the different factors that affect educational outcomes, how these differ between people, and how much nature or nurture play a role in these outcomes. Principal psychological theories that inform education are behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.[142] Associated fields are educational neuroscience and the neurology of education, which examine the neuropsychological processes and alterations involved in learning.[143]
Sociology of education examines how education influences socialization and how social circumstances and ideologies impact access to education and personal achievement within it. It examines the effects of education on various groups in society and its influence on individual identity. In particular, the sociology of education concentrates on learning the causes of inequality at its most fundamental level, providing insights useful to education policy that seeks to recognize and resolve sources of inequality.[144] Two of the major theories within this discipline are consensus theory and conflict theory. Consensus theorists argue that education serves society by preparing citizens for their roles in society, whereas conflict theorists see education as an instrument used by the dominant class to reinforce stratification.[145]
The economics of education discipline examines the production, distribution, and consumption of education. It aims to maximize the allocation of resources to improve education, e.g., evaluating the effect of higher teacher pay on the quality of teachers. Moreover, it analyzes the impact of reduced class size and spending on new education technology. Through informing the allocation of resources, economics of education facilitates decision-making among policymakers to generate maximum benefits to society. Besides, it focuses on the economic impacts of education in the long term, ranging from its contributions to developing highly qualified labor markets to improving a country's national competitiveness. A related field of study includes comparing the economic benefits and drawbacks of various educational systems.
World map with the Education Index of 2007/2008
Comparative education uses instruments such as the Education Index to contrast education systems between nations. The higher-scoring nations are illustrated in green, whereas the lower-scoring ones are illustrated in red.
Comparative education is the field of study that analyzes and compares education systems. Comparisons may be from a broad view or from specific factors such as social, political, or economic. Commonly used on various countries, comparative education evaluates the similarities and differences of their schools and educational practices, comparing the implications of different approaches. It is possible to learn from other nations on successful education policies and how one's system could be enhanced.[147] The practice of policy borrowing is fraught with difficulties since the success of a policy could be dependent upon the social and cultural environment of teachers and students. A connected and controversial issue is whether developed nations' educational systems are superior and must be exported to less developed nations.[148] Some of the most important topics include internationalizing education and the contribution of education to the shift from authoritarian governments to democracies.
The history of education examines the development of teaching practices, systems, and institutions. It discusses some of the most important processes, their possible causes and consequences, and how they relate to each other.
Aims and ideologies
One of the main issues in education research is how individuals ought to be educated and what the objectives of this should be. Several purposes have been put forward, such as the acquisition of information and skills, personal growth, and the development of moral virtues. Attributes most commonly recommended are such things as curiosity, originality, reasonableness, and critical thinking, together with tendencies to think, feel, and act in a moral sense. Scholars differ regarding whether to place more emphasis on liberal values of freedom, autonomy, and open-mindedness or virtues such as obedience to authority, ideological purity, piety, and religious faith.
Some theorists focus on one master purpose of education and see more narrow goals as ways to this purpose.[154] At an individual level, this goal is usually identified with helping the student live a good life.[155] On a social level, education seeks to form individuals into useful society members.[156] There is controversy surrounding whether education's ultimate goal is to serve the educated person or society.
Educational ideologies are systems of basic philosophical assumptions and principles used to interpret, understand, and evaluate current educational practice and policy. They deal with many dimensions other than the purposes of education, such as what is taught, how learning activities are organized, the position of teachers, how educational progress is measured, and how institutional structures and policy are organized. Educational ideologies are numerous and frequently interconnected. Teacher-centered ideologies emphasize the teacher's role in teaching students, whereas student-centered ideologies provide students with a greater role in learning. Process-based ideologies are concerned with how one teaches and learns, as opposed to product-based ideologies, which take into account education in terms of end products. Conservative ideologies hold on to conventional practices, while Progressive ideologies promote creativity and innovation. Other categories include humanism, romanticism, essentialism, encyclopaedism, pragmatism, and authoritarian and democratic ideologies.
Learning theories
The teaching method pertains to how the content is delivered by the teacher, such as whether group work is employed rather than focusing on individual learning. There exists a broad spectrum of methods used in teaching, and the most suitable in a particular situation varies with considerations such as the content and age as well as competence of the learner.[162] This is portrayed in contemporary school systems, where students are divided into various classes according to their age, competence, specialty, and mother tongue to guarantee a successful learning process. Various topics may utilize different methods; for instance, language learning tends to prioritize oral learning, while math learning relies on the use of abstract and symbolic thought and deductive reasoning.[163] Another essential area of teaching techniques is maintaining learner motivation through either intrinsic measures such as curiosity and interest or extrinsic incentives.
The instructional technique also involves the use of instruction media, for example, textbooks, worksheets, and audio-visual materials, and the conduct of some assessment or evaluation for measuring learning outcomes. Instructional assessment is documenting the learner's knowledge and ability, which is done formally or informally and can occur before, during, or after learning. Another important pedagogical feature of most contemporary educational methods is that every lesson forms part of a larger framework of education as controlled by a syllabus, which may cover a few months or years.[165] Under Herbartianism, teaching is divided into stages. First, the student's mind is prepared for receiving new information. Next, new thoughts are presented to the student and then related to already known concepts. In subsequent stages, knowing becomes more general beyond the particular instances, and the concepts are used in practical applications.
History
The history of education delves into the processes, methods, and institutions entwined with teaching and learning, aiming to elucidate their interplay and influence on educational practices over time.
Prehistory
Education in prehistory simply served to enable enculturation, with a focus on practical knowledge and skills for daily living, such as food cultivation, clothing, accommodation, and protection. There were no formal institutions and trained professionals, and teaching was done by adults within the community with informal learning occurring through everyday activities, including observation and practice of the elderly. In oral cultures, narrative was a central vehicle for the passing down of religious and cultural beliefs from one generation to the next.[168][e] With the development of agriculture in the Neolithic Revolution of about 9000 BCE, there followed a gradual educational trend toward specialization prompted by the emergence of larger settlements and the need for more complex artisanal and technical expertise.
Ancient era
Starting in the 4th millennium BCE and continuing through subsequent periods, a turning point in teaching methods came with the development of writing in areas including Mesopotamia, ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley, and ancient China.[171][f] This innovation greatly affected the path of education. Writing made information storage, retention, and communication possible, opening the way for later developments including the development of learning tools such as textbooks and the creation of institutions such as schools.
Mosaic from Pompeii showing Plato's Academy
Plato's Academy, shown in a Pompeii mosaic, is often considered the first institution of higher learning.
Another important feature of ancient learning was the formalization of education. This was necessary as societies grew and the amount of knowledge grew beyond what informal education could adequately pass down from generation to generation. Educators took on specialized roles to transfer knowledge, which resulted in a more abstract style of learning less connected to everyday life. Official education was rather uncommon in ancient civilizations, available mostly to the intellectual class.[174] It dealt with topics such as reading and writing, record-keeping, leadership, civic and political life, religion, and technical aspects related to particular professions.[175] Official education brought in a new pedagogy paradigm that focused on discipline and drills compared to the earlier informal methods.[176] Two such significant contributions of ancient education are the establishment of Plato's Academy in Ancient Greece, commonly considered the first institution of higher learning,[177] and the construction of the Great Library of Alexandria in Ancient Egypt, famous as one of the ancient world's greatest libraries.
Medieval era
There were numerous aspects of medieval education that were deeply affected by religious customs. In Europe, the Catholic Church had significant control over formal education.[179] In the Arab world, the swift expansion of Islam resulted in numerous educational developments during the Islamic Golden Age, combining classical and religious knowledge and creating madrasa schools.[180] In Jewish society, yeshivas became institutions for the study of religious texts and Jewish law.[181] In China, a vast state educational and examination system, influenced by Confucian teachings, was established.[182] As new complex societies arose in areas such as Africa, the Americas, Northern Europe, and Japan, some adopted established educational practices, while others created new traditions.
This period also saw the creation of multiple institutes of research and higher studies. Foremost among these were the University of Bologna (the oldest continuously operating university in the world), the University of Paris, and Oxford University in Europe.[184] Others were influential centers were the Al-Qarawiyyin University in Morocco,[185] Al-Azhar University in Egypt,[186] and the House of Wisdom in Iraq.[187] Another major milestone was the establishment of guilds, groups of expert craftsmen and merchants that governed their occupations and offered vocational training. Potential members went through different levels of training on their path to mastery.
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Modern era
Beginning in the early modern era, education in Renaissance Europe gradually transitioned away from a religious orientation towards a more secular direction. This growth was connected to a heightened recognition of the significance of education and an expansion of the topics studied, including a renewed interest in classical literary works and schooling.[189] The shift toward secularization was speeded along in the Age of Enlightenment from the 17th century on, which centered on the application of reason and the empirical sciences.[190] European colonization had an impact on American education via Christian missionary work.[191] In China, the state educational system was expanded further and became more centered on the instruction of neo-Confucianism.[192] In the Islamic world, the expansion of formal education continued and was still subject to religious control.[193] One of the major developments during the early modern era was the creation and spread of the printing press in the mid-15th century, which profoundly influenced general education. It lowered the cost of book production, which was hand-written previously, and thus increased the spread of written documents, such as new types like newspapers and pamphlets. The greater accessibility of written media had a profound impact on the overall literacy of the population.
These changes set the stage for the development of public education in the 18th and 19th centuries. This period saw the founding of publicly funded schools with the aim of educating all, unlike earlier times when formal education was mostly provided by private schools, religious schools, and private tutors.[195] One exception to this movement was the Aztec civilization, where formal education was mandatory for children of all social classes as early as the 14th century.[196] Similar changes were to make education mandatory and free for all children up to a particular age.
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Contemporary era
The development of public education and equal access to education accelerated in the 20th and the 21st centuries with the support of intergovernmental bodies like the UN. Major initiatives were the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Education for All program, the Millennium Development Goals, and the Sustainable Development Goals.[198] These efforts resulted in a steady rise in all types of education, with a significant impact on primary education. In 1970, 28% of all children of primary school age globally were not in school; by 2015, this number had fallen to 9%.
The founding of public education was followed by the implementation of standardized curricula for public schools and standardized tests to measure student progress. Examples in the present time are the Test of English as a Foreign Language, an internationally administered test for measuring the English language ability of non-native English speakers, and the Programme for International Student Assessment, a worldwide test that compares education systems by measuring the reading, math, and science abilities of 15-year-old students. Parallel changes affected teachers, with the creation of institutions and norms to monitor and control teacher training, such as certification requirements for teaching in public schools.[200]
Advances in educational technologies have had a great impact on contemporary education. The mass availability of computers and the internet has significantly increased access to educational resources and enabled new styles of learning, including online education. This became especially relevant in the time of the COVID-19 pandemic when schools across the globe shut down for extended durations, leading to numerous adopting video conferencing or video lessons recorded beforehand as a means of distant learning to maintain instruction.[201] Moreover, modern education is influenced by the growing globalization and globalizing of education practices.
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